The conquest of space

Introduction:

The exploration of space is both a science and a technical discipline related to navigation beyond Earth's atmosphere. It is also referred to as astronautics, a term coined by Joseph Henri Rosny (1856–1940) in 1927.

Astronautics encompasses both crewed spaceflights and uncrewed missions. It is an interdisciplinary field that draws upon various scientific domains, including physics, astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, medicine, biology, electronics, and meteorology.

Space, a vast and mysterious realm populated by celestial bodies, remains largely unknown to humanity due to its composition, immense scale, and continuous, infinite expansion. The only means for humankind to explore and unlock the secrets of the universe lies in scientific progress. This progress has naturally gravitated toward the complex field of space exploration, which serves as a vehicle for acquiring knowledge and answers.

Since October 1957, when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik and the United States followed with Explorer 1 in 1958, the space age has truly begun. Over the following decades, more than 1,600 spacecraft have been launched, most of them dedicated to exploring Earth's orbit. Between 1969 and 1972, humans walked on the Moon, turning a long-standing dream into reality. Before this milestone, space travel had captured human imagination for millennia. Initially, space missions were primarily used for surveillance and espionage during the Cold War tensions between superpowers. However, since the 1990s, space exploration has taken on an international dimension, focusing on purposes beneficial to humanity. Increasingly, we witness international crewed missions that, with their repeated and incident-free execution, have rendered space travel almost routine, redefining the objectives of space exploration.

Thus, it is worth questioning the benefits of space exploration for humanity.

Today, space exploration represents an avenue for acquiring new scientific knowledge that is both valuable and beneficial to humankind. It also serves as a catalyst for economic development, despite being hindered by budgetary constraints.

We will first examine space exploration as a scientific reality, then as a driver of economic development, and finally as a source of inspiration and dreams for humanity.

Space Exploration as a Source of Scientific Knowledge Beneficial to Humanity.

First and foremost, space exploration enables us to deepen our understanding of the universe. Some may wonder why humans ventured to the Moon, given that it has no life or exploitable resources. What did they learn from this endeavor? Quite simply, they uncovered insights into how planets formed. Before lunar exploration, physicists believed that planets, like stars, formed through gravitational collapse. However, by studying the density of craters on the Moon, scientists confirmed that the correct theory was instead that of progressive accretion. This discovery revolutionized our understanding of planetary and celestial body formation it was far more than just a spectacular mission.

Over two decades of space observations have yielded more knowledge about the universe than humankind had accumulated throughout history. The Moon itself could serve as an ideal base for astronomical observation. The absence of an atmosphere eliminates obstructions to the full electromagnetic spectrum. Moreover, the Moon's far side, shielded from Earth's electromagnetic interference, could be an optimal site for an advanced observatory.

In terms of ambition, achievement, and dreams, sending humans to Mars might be the next great milestone of 21st-century space exploration. Within the solar system, Mars is the most promising candidate for hosting life forms similar to those on Earth. The Pathfinder mission was not only a major media success but also a remarkable technical feat. While Mars remains a primary focus for planetary exploration, other celestial bodies including planets, their moons, comets, and even the Sun continue to be studied through planned observation missions.

For probing the mysteries of deep space, the Hubble Space Telescope has been an invaluable tool for astrophysicists. Named after astronomer Edwin Hubble, the great discoverer of galaxies, this telescope has enabled humankind to embark on a breathtaking journey through space and time. The images captured from the farthest reaches of the cosmos light that has traveled billions of years to reach us offer a glimpse of the universe as it appeared at the dawn of time.

The ESA’s Envisat satellite is designed for environmental study. It carries more than a dozen instruments intended to measure various parameters that influence Earth's environment. The current trend is shifting towards building more specialized satellites, leading to shorter production times and lower costs. The Franco-American Topex Poseidon satellite serves as an exemplary model in many ways. It is the result of an open and confident collaboration between France CNES and the United States NASA. Launched by Ariane in 1993, it carries highly sensitive altimeters, both French and American, that map the ocean surface with centimeter-level precision. The dips and rises on the ocean’s surface reflect the underwater topography, variations in Earth’s gravity, and warm or cold currents. Jason will be the successor to Topex Poseidon.

However, the most familiar observation satellites for the general public are geostationary meteorological satellites, which regularly send images of Earth's cloud cover. Eumetsat European Organization for the Exploration of Meteorological Satellites, an intergovernmental organization established in 1986, is responsible for the implementation, maintenance, and operation of European meteorological satellite systems in collaboration with the World Meteorological Organization WMO. Eumetsat operates the geostationary Meteosat satellites and, starting in 2002, three EPS European Polar System satellites in low polar orbit.

Can we be optimistic about advances in weather forecasting in the coming decades? Yes, but not triumphantly. While data collection and digital processing will continue to make remarkable progress, the equations governing aerodynamics are inherently highly sensitive and tend to diverge significantly. No matter how advanced simulation models are, they quickly deviate from reality if they are not frequently adjusted using real observations. Reliable weather forecasts extending up to a month into the future are not coming anytime soon! However, the study of long term climate variations benefits considerably from satellite observations conducted within various programs.

Furthermore, space exploration contributes to the advancement of science. First, in the field of medicine, the development of space technologies now allows us to monitor and anticipate the spread of major diseases such as malaria and cholera. Satellite data is collected on a central server, where it is cross referenced with broader data from organizations like the FAO. These datasets are used to create mathematical models specific to each disease, predicting their geographical spread and enabling quick responses to emerging threats. For example, satellites monitor malaria outbreaks in Mexico and Rift Valley fever in Kenya.

Additionally, satellites can revolutionize medical practices by enabling better and alternative treatments. Telemedicine, for instance, assists medically dependent individuals remotely or allows for precise diagnostics in remote regions where specialists cannot travel.

Moreover, the pharmaceutical industry benefits from space research, as experiments conducted in microgravity have shown that weightlessness provides an unparalleled environment for studying protein structures and functions. This leads to the development of new drugs and improvements to existing ones.

From an ecological standpoint, observation satellites help track the quantitative evolution of living species, their influence on our environment, and their development across seasons and latitudes. More importantly, they provide data on atmospheric ozone quality. In meteorology, satellites offer a global view of atmospheric conditions. Geostationary satellites like Meteosat deliver images of cloud formations and their evolution, as well as data on ocean surface temperatures. Furthermore, oceanographic satellites can make climate predictions months in advance.

Finally, observation satellites play a crucial role in geology by enabling the discovery of untapped mineral deposits on both land and ocean floors, thanks to precise measurement and detection instruments. They also contribute significantly to research on Earth's geological layers.

The explosive development of telecommunications and information dissemination has given space exploration new momentum, with a faster pace and sometimes deeper impact. Mobile telephony is increasingly relying on constellations of small low-orbit satellites, such as Iridium and Globalstar. The scale of research and development efforts has led to global partnerships between major American, Japanese, Russian, and European companies. Between 1999 and 2003, over 600 satellites, whether in constellations or geostationary, were expected to be launched.

The late 1990s marked a turning point in space related communication activities. The mobile phone industry, in particular, shifted towards using low orbit satellite constellations like Iridium and Globalstar. This new technology also transformed industrial behavior, as large scale programs and underlying research efforts prompted global partnerships between leading corporations from the United States, Japan, Russia, and Europe.

Deploying satellite constellations required innovative studies not only on satellite structures but also on the coordinated management of numerous space borne devices. There is also a general trend, driven in part by deregulation, toward major industrial companies taking on the triple role of investor, manufacturer, and operator.

After television, digital radio broadcasting via satellites has shown promising development. Satellites, especially geostationary ones, are the ideal means of reaching widely dispersed populations. Systems such as Arabsat, Afristar, and RASCOM cater to these needs, with many more in development.

For highly concentrated telecommunications transit systems such as those required for transoceanic communication between high density population zones satellites play a critical role.

Closely related to communication and data transport technologies, satellite-based positioning and navigation systems have experienced remarkable growth. The American GPS system is universally recognized and used. Russia has developed its GLONASS network, and Europe is launching its Galileo Sat program. Beyond its technical merits, this program holds political significance for two main reasons: first, it prevents the establishment of a definitive American monopoly in a key modern technology sector; second, its development involves equal financial contributions from the ESA and the EU. This cooperation between a technical agency and the European Commission exemplifies the collaboration between technical and political entities, working together to achieve a program justified by Europe's policy of strategic independence.

A decade ago, telecommunications satellite funding was primarily government driven. Today, banks and pension funds have become significant players. This trend is likely to continue, especially if flagship programs like Iridium and Globalstar prove to be not only technological successes but also financially viable. However, experts agree that public funding remains essential for the growth of this key sector in modern society.

What would a defense system be today without satellite based surveillance? What use would blind armies be? The U.S. National Reconnaissance Office NRO reportedly has an annual budget of $6 billion. During its peak in the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union launched about 100 satellites annually, two thirds of which were dedicated to security programs. Europe remains relatively modest in this field. France, with partners Italy 14% and Spain 7%, has developed the military observation satellite Helios. To progress further in Europe, it would be highly beneficial for Germany to commit to a joint program. European military space efforts have not yet achieved the success of their civilian counterparts.

In the realm of civilian observation, however, Europe performs well. The French Spot satellite, first launched in 1986, immediately matched or exceeded the performance of American Landsat satellites. Spot 5, launched in 2001, provides images with a ground resolution of three meters over a 120 kilometer wide field. Since 1986, over six million images have been archived and made available to users. The commercialization of these images is managed by Spot Image, which typically sets prices to cover operational costs, with infrastructure expenses remaining publicly funded.

Spot is primarily a French system, with contributions from Belgium and Sweden. Germany chose not to participate, and as a result, ESA could not include it in its programs. Once again, France’s firm space policy secured its place in a critical market. Since then, ESA has launched another successful Earth observation program, focusing on radar instead of visible light. The ERS-1 and ERS-2 satellites, launched in 1992 and 1995, allow for highly original observations, particularly regarding slight deformations of the Earth's surface in seismic zones. The ESA's Envisat satellite is dedicated to environmental studies. It will carry more than a dozen instruments designed to measure various parameters that influence the Earth's environment. The current trend is toward building more specialized satellites, leading to more reasonable development times and lower costs. The Franco-American satellite Topex Poseidon is exemplary in many ways. It is the result of a perfectly open and confident Franco American collaboration CNES-NASA. Launched by Ariane in 1993, it carries highly sensitive French and American altimeters that map the surface of the oceans with an accuracy of about one centimeter. The dips and bumps on the ocean surface reflect submarine topography, variations in Earth's gravity, and warm or cold currents. Jason will be the successor to Topex-Poseidon.

However, the most familiar observation satellites to the general public are geostationary meteorological satellites, which regularly send us images of Earth's cloud cover. Eumetsat European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, an intergovernmental organization established in 1986, is responsible for setting up, maintaining, and operating European operational meteorological satellite systems, in cooperation with the World Meteorological Organization WMO. Eumetsat operates the geostationary Meteosat satellites and, starting in 2002, three EPS European Polar System satellites in low polar orbit.

Can we be optimistic about the progress of weather forecasting in the coming decades? Yes, but not overly triumphant. The acquisition and digital processing of data will certainly continue to make remarkable progress. However, the equations governing aerodynamics are inherently highly sensitive and tend to diverge significantly. No matter how advanced simulation models become, they quickly deviate from reality unless they are frequently adjusted based on observations. Reliable weather forecasts for a month in advance are not coming anytime soon! However, the study of long term climate variations greatly benefits from satellite observations conducted in a variety of programs.

After television, digital satellite radio broadcasting has shown promising development. For both radio and television, satellites particularly geostationary ones are the ideal means to serve a widely dispersed population. Systems such as Arabsat, Afristar, and soon Rascom, cater to these needs, and many more are under study. In the field of localization, which is closely linked to communication and data transmission technologies, the ability to locate and guide mobile units of all kinds on land, at sea, or in the air is experiencing remarkable growth. The American GPS system is universally known and used. The Russians have developed the GLONASS network. Europe, in turn, is launching a program called Galileo Sat.

Thus, the conquest of space is an extension of scientific knowledge that reopens the field of creativity. It is also a catalyst for economic development.

The conquest of space serves as a driver of economic development. Indeed, it generates jobs and fosters new activities within the service sector. First, it creates employment. Nearly 350,000 people currently work directly or indirectly for the U.S. space program. In France, this sector has generated 17,000 jobs. In Germany, space related activities employ 5,000 people in the industry and around 2,000 in research relatively few given the budgets invested. However, these 7,000 jobs are highly skilled positions.

The telecommunications sector is experiencing rapid growth and remains the most dominant market, estimated today at over $20 billion worldwide. The telecommunications satellite sector alone accounts for only 1% of all communication equipment.

Regarding public telephony, a true financial bankruptcy was initially experienced, but this sector is now proving profitable for the global community. GPS technology is becoming increasingly integrated into civil society, just like mobile phones, allowing for a precision of 10 centimeters for military applications and 10 meters for civilian use. The American market alone benefits from more than $8 billion in this field. Concerning the leasing of satellite transmission capacities or the purchase of intelligence data, the U.S. Department of Commerce Office of Air and Space Commercialization has reported a figure of $16 billion in this regard.

Furthermore, the impact of space exploration is reflected in the expansion of the space industry, including both the launch industry and material manufacturing. This sector has experienced significant growth, as evidenced by its continuously increasing revenue. In the United States, it has been growing at a rate of 14% per year. Between 1980 and 1999, revenue increased from $8 billion to $26 billion.

The launcher and propulsion industry, like the satellite sector, accounts for approximately 15% of the entire space industry and continuously improves through technical advancements and international technical and scientific cooperation, making it increasingly profitable, efficient, and optimized.

European industrial players are also competitive with their American counterparts. Fifteen European companies were among the world’s top 50 in this sector in 1996, with a total revenue of $9.4 billion. This revenue was expected to double by 2002, while government budgets both civilian and military only generated $6.2 billion in potential domestic revenue for these companies. The success of the European space industry's commercialization depends primarily on ARIANESPACE, which has led to irreversible development, impacting all related fields such as computing, mechanics, robotics, and materials.

According to the U.S. Office of Air and Space Commercialization, commercial domestic revenues of American space industry companies totaled $7.4 billion in 1996 and $9.2 billion in 1999. These figures cover all services financed exclusively through private funds.

Additionally, space is considered a new frontier, presenting challenges in materials science. Space exploration offers opportunities to develop new alloys, such as KEVLAR and REGOLITES composites. It has also led to the commercialization of products synthesized in space. For example, FROZEN SMOKE, also known as AEROGEL, is the lightest solid known to date, with a density three times greater than air and eight times lower than polystyrene.

Finally, the impact of space exploration on natural resource exploitation is highly beneficial to the economy. In depth energy studies indicate that in the future, terrestrial resources such as oil, natural gas, and uranium will become increasingly scarce. Space exploration in this context could be of vital importance, helping to identify and utilize cleaner, renewable energy sources by exploiting natural resources in space.

Several projects have been proposed, including the launch of geostationary satellites equipped with large solar panels that would transmit energy to Earth in the form of one or more microwave beams, which would be collected by large ground based antennas and redistributed locally.

Regarding raw materials and minerals, the Moon according to past manned and unmanned explorations contains large deposits of Helium-3, an isotope almost non existent on Earth, which could serve as a promising fuel for future propulsion systems and fusion power plants like the TOKAMAK reactors. Space exploration could also contribute to the extraction of minerals such as zinc, nickel, and, most notably, precious metals from other planets, which are highly valuable for industrial applications on Earth.

Ultimately, space exploration stands as a key indicator of economic growth. However, its progress is hindered by several constraints.

International cooperation in the field of space remains limited. In the past, space exploration was a domain of competition between superpowers during the Cold War, primarily driven by military objectives. Today, it faces constraints due to the decline of former Soviet satellite states, particularly Russia, in space research, as well as disagreements between former allies, namely Europe and the United States. The latter seeks supremacy with the clear objective of reclaiming leadership in space. This is illustrated by the announcement of the resumption of space exploration for strategic purposes, including the development of an anti missile shield.

At the same time, Europe, with its vast experience and vision of building a political, economic, and strategic entity independent of American hegemony, aims to secure its space autonomy. To this end, Europe has embarked on the development and construction of its own launchers to end its dependence on American systems. Europe, led by France, continues to encourage the development of the European positioning system, GALILEO, to ensure independence from the Global Positioning System GPS and to compete with it on the market.

Furthermore, the limited number of countries involved in space research barely exceeding fifteen further restricts cooperation and exchange initiatives. A notable example is the assembly and deployment of the International Space Station ISS, which involves only a handful of countries based on their material, technological, or financial contributions. The main contributors include the United States, Europe, Japan, Canada, Russia, and Brazil.

Another factor contributing to this lack of cooperation is the isolation of China and India. Despite the difficulties they have faced, both nations have made remarkable breakthroughs in the aerospace industry. China alone has three satellite launch sites and ranks as the fifth largest country in the world for satellite launches using its own rockets. This highlights the difficulties of cooperation due to political divergences and strategic aspirations. In this context, aerospace research cooperation remains limited to regions, entities, and groups that are often wealthy or bound by alliances.

Secondly, the extremely high costs make space travel anything but routine. The launch of a rocket costs tens or even hundreds of millions of dollars in the case of the space shuttle. For this reason, space remains difficult to access today. Since the 1970s, the primary concern in spaceflight has been to reduce launch costs. This was, in fact, the primary objective of the American space shuttle. When President Richard Nixon announced the project in 1972, it was expected that each launch would cost only $25 million and that flights could occur weekly. However, this never materialized, as the actual costs far exceeded estimates.

Moreover, the cost and risks associated with any launch continue to significantly hinder space exploration. It is estimated that costs must be reduced by a factor of ten and reliability must be improved to pave the way for the diverse utilization of space, including space tourism and lunar travel. Various solutions are being explored worldwide. Some researchers aim to improve the reliability of existing rockets and lower manufacturing costs by developing reusable rockets, while others are working on designing cheaper launchers. The ultimate approach likely lies in developing an aerospace plane that would function similarly to a commercial airliner. However, this remains a difficult feat to achieve.

Additionally, countries involved in space exploration, led by the United States, face challenges in financing space projects. This has pushed them to seek international cooperation in this area. As a result, they are considering the deployment of an international space station funded through the financial participation of all member countries. The contribution amounts have not yet been determined but are expected to be calculated based on each country's gross domestic product.

While the high costs of launching and building space shuttles remain one of the major obstacles to the peak of space exploration and the full utilization of the universe’s potential, another significant concern is the cost of human lives those of astronauts. One must not forget the tragic disaster caused by the Challenger explosion in 1986.

The current state of knowledge does not allow for the resolution of certain scientific and technical challenges that hinder progress in space exploration.

From a technical perspective, space transportation is experiencing a prolonged stagnation. Rockets, as a means of travel, appear to have reached their intrinsic limits, leading the world to settle for expendable launchers, with only the United States capable of funding the efforts required to develop reusable launchers.

Furthermore, upcoming space missions are planned for Mars, which is located 80 million kilometers from Earth. However, a round trip would take two to three years, not to mention the even greater distances of other planets. Current technical knowledge does not allow humanity to overcome the major challenges of space travel, such as time, logistics, and safety.

From another perspective, outer space's vacuum and the absence of gravity pose significant challenges for the establishment of inhabited bases in Earth's orbit or on other planets. This hostile and unfamiliar environment containing cosmic dust, unexplained natural phenomena, meteors, black holes, and quasars presents serious health risks for future space travelers, including bone calcium loss, muscle weakening, and disruptions to the sensory and nervous systems.

At present, science has yet to provide definitive solutions to these health issues, which further impedes progress in space exploration.

Ultimately, space exploration faces inherent challenges, including the high cost of space projects and the inefficiency of scientific cooperation, making it remain largely in the realm of utopia and dreams.

Conclusion:

In sum, space exploration represents a renewal of human creativity and serves as a new avenue for economic growth. It remains a dream an expensive one, indeed but one that we hope will be shared by all nations.

A less costly space activity, with shorter timelines, that continues to stimulate progress in knowledge and expertise while striving to turn dreams into reality this is the ambitious yet realistic goal for the third millennium. Thus, would it not be wise to foster scientific research and cooperation for a better understanding of the space around us and the enhanced protection of nations' interests?