the european union and the middle east

In the early 19th century, the Middle East became the most advanced stronghold of the Western world, attracting new interests from the great powers of the time: Russia, Germany, France, and Great Britain, among others. Having entered World War I on Germany's side, the Ottoman Empire was dismantled by the victorious Allies and permanently lost its influence in the region. At the same time, the discovery of oil for the first time in Iran in 1908 made this area a battleground of fierce competition among numerous Western oil companies. After the independence movements that followed World War II, the newly formed states Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq struggled to find stability.

Furthermore, the creation of the State of Israel in May 1948 introduced a new source of conflict in the region, compounded by the East-West confrontation, as the Gulf became a target for the former Soviet Union, which promoted an ideology in the region to destabilize the Western world in alignment with its objectives.

Following the Iranian Revolution and the collapse of the Soviet bloc, the United States became the sole power in the region, taking on the role of the Gulf's policeman. This area has become and will remain for a long time one of the most important regions in the global economy and will likely continue to be a site of conflicts and upheavals.

The political configuration of the Middle East has often changed over the years, and current territorial divisions should not be seen as permanent. The region comprises about fifteen states whose borders were shaped by European powers in the past century, as well as by peace treaties concluded after World War I. France and Great Britain were the primary architects of this map, on which some borders were drawn arbitrarily based on their interests, without regard to the aspirations of the native populations or historical and geographical realities. The Palestinian issue and the situation of the Kurds remain sensitive issues in the Middle East.

The European Union EU was born after World War II. The process of European integration began on May 9, 1950, when France officially proposed laying the groundwork for a Federation. The EU now has fifteen member states and is preparing to admit thirteen more from Eastern and Northern Europe.

The European Union is founded on the rule of law and democracy. It is not a superstate that replaces existing states, nor is it comparable to other international organizations. Its member states delegate part of their sovereignty to common institutions, which defend the interests of the entire Union on matters of shared interest. All decisions and procedures are based on basic treaties ratified by member states. The energy security of the United States, Japan, and Western Europe will increasingly depend on the Middle East over the next twenty years.

Given the recent situation, it is clearer why Washington has an urgent and imperial drive to control the Middle East. Currently, the relationships between the Middle East and the European Union are not as firmly anchored as they once were. The Middle Eastern countries are torn by conflicts, and their leaders do not always agree due to the diversity of regimes. The European Union states, powerless in the face of American hegemony, are seeking other partners to further strengthen the Union to face its competitors.

Starting from this observation, the question that arises is related to the evolution of relations between Middle Eastern countries and those of the European Union. A crossroads of civilizations and a bridge between the West and the Far East, the Middle East has long been a target of European Powers. The European Economic Community, created after the Second World War, was able to maintain relations with countries in the region despite periodic crises and tensions resulting from the Cold War. However, the armed conflicts engulfing this region demonstrate the current European Union's inability to counterbalance an American influence that has become firmly established.

To support this thesis, we will first discuss the historical relations between the European Union and the Middle East, followed by cooperation between the two regions, and finally address the issue of armed conflicts in the Middle East and the European Union's stance.

I - HISTORICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE MIDDLE EAST:

The First World War, during which the Ottoman Empire aligned itself with Germany, marked the end of this empire. The countries in the Middle East, which were under European control, gradually gained relative independence during the Cold War period.

1.1 - The Middle East between European colonization and independence: 

Following the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1916 and the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, the United Kingdom and France, both regional rivals, divided vast areas of influence in the Middle East as mandates under the defunct League of Nations SDN. These agreements defined a British-administered zone, including the Jordan area up to the eastern border of what is now Jordan, covering the Kirkuk region in Iraq, and an international zone roughly corresponding to Palestine.

The later San Remo agreements of April 24, 1920, removed the oil-rich region of Mosul from French control and attached it to Iraq under British rule. In exchange, France received a quarter of the oil production from this region through the French Petroleum Company. The newly created Iraq became a potential source of instability, encompassing three distinct communities: Kurds in the north, Shiites in the south, and a Sunni population in the center. Additionally, the British fueled a territorial dispute by separating the Emirate of Kuwait from Iraq, which was traditionally part of the Basra province under the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, in an effort to protect its long-term interests in the region, Britain recognized, through the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the establishment of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine. France gained control of Syria, detaching several provinces, including Lebanon, where a significant Francophile Maronite Christian minority resided.

The period of decolonization spanned from the 1920s to the 1970s. Egypt gained independence from Britain in 1922, following demands by the Liberal Wafd Party. Iraq became independent in 1932. Facing Arab resistance, France eventually recognized Lebanon and Syria as sovereign states in 1936, with true independence coming in 1941 and 1946, respectively. In Arabia, Hussein, a British ally, was ousted from his kingdom of Hejaz in 1923 by Ibn Saud, who established the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. Smaller Gulf states had to wait a bit longer for independence: Kuwait in 1961, Yemen in 1967, and the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Bahrain in 1971.

Turkey, for its part, achieved more favorable borders through the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, especially after Mustafa Kemal's military successes. He launched a modernization program, inspired by the Young Turks' movement, which included the secularization of the state in 1924 and the abolition of the caliphate. Despite gaining independence, Middle Eastern countries remained fragmented and unstable. Despite the region's economic potential and multiple attempts at unification, it remained a hotspot for conflicts and tensions following World War II and during the Cold War.

1.2 - The Middle East after independence and foreign influence on the region: 

In March 1945, the Arab League was created. Pan-Arabism, a modernist political ideology, dominated Arab thought for twenty years, advocating for the unity of this nation. Following the overthrow of King Farouk in 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt's true leader, negotiated the departure of British forces. Immediately after the departure of the last British soldier in July 1956, he nationalized the Suez Canal. Britain and France, shareholders of the canal company, allied with Israel to attack Egypt, but the United States and the USSR Eisenhower and Khrushchev jointly demanded the coalition’s withdrawal. The Suez Crisis marked the decline of European powers in favor of the two superpowers, and the Middle East became a Cold War battleground.

To counter the USSR and ensure a steady oil supply for the West, the United States assumed the role previously held by Britain. Threatened by Soviet expansionism, Turkey was admitted to NATO in 1951. In Iran, Prime Minister Mossadegh attempted to nationalize oil production in 1953 but failed.

At the end of World War II, Egypt and Palestine remained under British administration. In Palestine, tensions rose among the British, Arabs, and Jews. In 1947, the United Nations voted to partition Palestine into two states, one Arab and the other Jewish. Arab states rejected this plan. Economically weakened by the war, the United Kingdom decided to leave Palestine in May 1948. Israel was declared a state by David Ben-Gurion on May 14, and several Arab states declared war the same day. Three additional wars followed, involving Israel, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and the Palestinians in 1956, 1967, and 1973.

Yasser Arafat, succeeding Ahmed Shukairy, unified key Palestinian movements under the Palestine Liberation Organization PLO, founded in 1964. The Arabs used their oil power to pressure Western countries, notably European ones, by increasing oil prices by 70% and imposing restrictions and embargoes. This resulted in the first oil shock of 1973, with the price of crude oil jumping from $3 to $12 per barrel. Oil-producing countries nationalized oil extraction. The second oil shock occurred in 1979 (with oil prices reaching $36 per barrel) following the Iranian revolution. Japan and the European Economic Community (EEC) were among the hardest hit.

The Middle East became a region of instability with multiple competing interests. Recognizing the region's importance, the European Union developed a policy with different facets.

II - EUROPEAN UNION-MIDDLE EAST COOPERATION: 

Historically, the connection between the two regions was based on mutual interests. Geographical proximity was reinforced by French and British colonization of most Middle Eastern states, establishing a lasting bond characterized by economic and political stakes.

2.1 - Economic Interests: 

On one hand, the Middle East serves as a strategic continental and maritime hub. Additionally, population pressures are a significant concern, leading to divergent approaches to address them. Oil also remains a crucial factor in this part of the world, due to its ties with industrialized nations and OPEC countries.

On the other hand, the European Union, with its unique status and structure, has focused on economic priorities since the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community after World War II, a factor that currently reflects the Union’s strength. We might then ask: what role does the Middle East play in the European Union’s economic policy in the global market?

2.2 - The Weight of the European Economy in the Global Market: 

The core of European cooperation has been the economic development of member states, with various set goals. In 2000, the European Union contributed 24.93% of the world’s gross product. Industrial goods trade experienced growth, reflecting the rise of industrialized Asian countries like Japan and the progressive expansion of multinational companies globally.

However, the share of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries has declined, indicating the EU's economic policy failure in these areas. Conversely, trade with Central and Eastern European countries has doubled, suggesting anticipation of EU enlargement in the coming years.

Consequently, what is the EU’s economic policy in the Middle East?

2.3 - EU Economic Policy in the Middle East: 

Since the 1970s, Europe has concluded bilateral cooperation agreements with Israel, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and Lebanon. Additionally, following the first Euro-Mediterranean conference held in Barcelona, association agreements were signed with several countries, including Israel, which was recognized as the EU’s primary economic partner in the region by the end of 1995. The same economic policy was later applied to the Palestinian Authority in 1997.

Since 1971, the EU has contributed to the budget of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees; it also leads as a donor to the Palestinian territories. Additionally, since June 2001, the EU has provided 10 million euros per month to the Palestinian Authority in direct budgetary aid. An additional 10 million euros was granted for an emergency assistance program designed by the World Bank to cover operational costs in the health sector. Finally, another 10 million euros was allocated to a special program supporting municipal services.

In contrast, the EU’s policy towards Israel is based on partnership and cooperation, not exclusion. The EU believes that maintaining relations with Israel is an important contribution to the Middle East peace process, as suspending the association agreement would not make Israeli authorities more receptive to the EU's current concerns.

Therefore, if the EU’s economic strength is evident internally and in some global regions, though limited in the Middle East, what about Europe’s political influence in the region?

24- Political Issues:

During the Cold War, Europe was divided between two different ideologies: Eastern Europe and Western Europe. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, new political opportunities opened up for Europe, especially following the creation of the European Union.

However, setting aside the Union’s policies towards Central and Eastern European countries, as well as African or Central Asian nations, what is its political stance in the Middle East, specifically regarding Palestine and Iraq?

241- In Palestine:

For the European Union, the Israeli-Arab conflict represents a divergence in sensitivity among its member states and is a major concern. The Six-Day War in June 1967 and the Yom Kippur War in October 1973 notably caused divisions, particularly between Gaullist France, which leaned pro-Arab, and countries like the Netherlands and Germany, which were more supportive of Israel. However, the oil crisis and the threat of an Arab boycott accelerated the establishment of a Euro-Arab dialogue in 1974, following the Copenhagen summit.

Additionally, the 1980 Venice Declaration marked the first genuinely official and politically strong stance by Europe. This official position was manifested by:

• Recognition of the Palestinians' right to self-determination,
• The end of Israeli occupation,
• The illegality of Jewish settlements and laws altering the status of Jerusalem,
• The necessity to involve the PLO in peace negotiations.

Since then, the European Economic Community, and later the European Union, has maintained the same stance on the Israeli-Arab issue. But after a decade of active, independent Middle Eastern policy separate from Washington, Europe aligned itself with the U.S. in the Second Gulf War. This alignment yielded no benefit for Europe, which was marginalized at the Madrid conference, where it held only "observer" status.

Currently, the European Union's general stance on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is as follows: the Union recognizes Israel’s irrevocable right to live in peace and security within internationally recognized borders. It also acknowledges the need to establish a sovereign, democratic, viable, and peaceful Palestinian state based on the 1967 borders.

Unfortunately, this position remains largely theoretical. Evidence of this lies in the fact that while the U.S. maintains a significant presence, the European Union was entirely absent from the recent Sharm El Sheikh Summit in Egypt, which discussed the so-called "road map."

In this context, the international political scene has recently been marked by the invasion of Iraq under the pretext of possessing weapons of mass destruction. This war, lacking international legitimacy, led to the collapse of the Iraqi regime.

But what was the European Union’s stance on this invasion?

242- In Iraq:

The war in Iraq highlighted a political division within the Union, between those who opposed and those who supported the war. The Union found itself in an awkward situation, which somewhat cast doubt on its future political unity. This contrast is illustrated by three distinct positions within the Union.

First, there was a pro-war stance, notably taken by the British Prime Minister, along with military participation. The second position supported the war but without military involvement; Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Denmark are examples. Finally, there was a stance against the war, categorically rejecting any military action without international legitimacy, taken mainly by France and Germany, along with Belgium.

Despite several meetings, the European Parliament was unable to make any decision to manage this complex situation, resulting in failure. This disagreement prevented the European Union from acting and deciding, causing general disappointment in the eyes of international opinion, which was largely opposed to the invasion of Iraq.

Thus, in relation to the United States, the European Union appeared weak, politically incapable of managing armed conflicts on a global scale; the Middle East being the prime example of this.

Conclusion:

Possessing the world’s largest oil reserves and inheritors of a rich ancestral cultural civilization, Middle Eastern countries have not benefited from the European experience. To this day, they serve primarily as the economic lifeline for Western economies. The European Union has provided only modest assistance to societies in the region. Its limited technological contributions and its inability to resolve conflicts reveal the weaknesses in its foreign policy in the Middle East. The U.S. intervention in the region could seriously hinder the European Union's strategy, which aims to act as a counterbalance.

Whether concerning border issues, tensions between regimes, regional ambitions, interference by major powers, economic and financial stakes, or religious matters, even the slightest geopolitical shake in the region could quickly escalate into a global seismic event.

Could we envision a Middle East one day without oil, or even without water?