Apartheid in the Republic of South Africa

INTRODUCTION:

At the southern tip of Africa, between the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, lies the Republic of South Africa, occupying the southernmost part of the African continent. It is bordered by Namibia to the northwest, Botswana and Zimbabwe to the north, Mozambique to the northeast, and Swaziland to the east. The country is bathed by the Indian Ocean to the south and southeast, and by the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Lesotho is completely enclosed within South Africa. South Africa is divided into nine provinces.

The southern and eastern regions of the country are mountainous, while the west and northwest are arid and partially desert-like. The interior of the country consists of a vast plateau. Most of the territory is covered with grasslands, suitable for raising cattle and sheep. South Africa has a temperate climate and is generally very sunny.

There are four main climatic zones: the east coast, the west coast, the Karoo desert in the south, and the northwest territory. The east, with its warm and humid climate, is home to almost all species of wildlife found in South Africa. The west of the country, on the other hand, is hot and dry. The few drops of rain that occasionally reach the Karoo desert allow some vegetation to grow. With a temperate climate, the northwest territory receives abundant rainfall, making it the country’s main agricultural area.

Apartheid was the policy of racial segregation practiced in the Republic of South Africa, encompassing legal, political, and economic discrimination against Black people. It is impossible to discuss the end of apartheid in Africa without retracing its complete history, understanding its foundations, and ultimately following its evolution to the present day.

I - HISTORY

There is evidence of human or humanoid occupation in South Africa dating back millions of years. Stone Age artifacts at least 40,000 years old have been found, attributed to the Khoikhoi people. The first Dutch settlers arrived at the Cape Cape Town in 1652, more than a century after Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama passed by the Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese, focused on India, avoided conflicts with the Khoikhoi people, who had inhabited the region for thousands of years and were hostile to foreign sailors. Jan van Riebeeck was the first Dutchman to challenge the Khoikhoi’s suspicion. He landed at the Cape and established a colony where farming and livestock supported passing ships bound for Indonesia. By 1688, about 600 farmers were settled, dividing their time between agriculture and conflicts with the Khoikhoi. To build a small community, the Dutch settlers were exceptionally united and aggressive—traits that came to define Boer culture in southern Africa.

In 1806, the British took control of the Cape. They established trade agreements, appointed indigenous leaders as intermediaries, and opposed the Boer’s strict slave practices. In 1834, about 14,000 Boers began the Great Trek into the interior, leading them to Transvaal, present-day Orange, and Natal. Seeking to exploit slave labor without interference, the Boers established the Transvaal Statutes in 1852 and Orange in 1854. Although Britain recognized these areas’ independence, the Boers had to conduct trade through British-controlled ports. The resistance from indigenous groups was significant, costing many lives. Moving north, the Boers encountered the Xhosa and Zulu tribes. Led by Shaka, the Zulus halted their advance for 50 years.

Peace between the Boers and British ended in 1867 when gold and diamond deposits were discovered in Transvaal. Recognizing the region's economic and strategic value, Britain proposed a federation with the Cape and Free State, which the Boers rejected, leading to war in 1899. The British had support from their colonies, while the Boers had German backing. After three years, the Boers surrendered, accepting British authority. With Britain’s victory, agricultural dominance in Orange and Transvaal declined, replaced by a mining boom. European capitalists, beginning to exploit gold and diamonds, hired skilled white laborers, mostly former Boer farmers who lost everything in the war or Europeans drawn by the gold rush.

In 1896, the color bar was fully implemented in the mining sector and British-majority urban centers. The 1910 South African Union Constitution federating the Cape, Natal, Orange, and Transvaal provinces disenfranchised black South Africans and barred them from owning land. By 1930, one-ninth of cultivated lands were owned by Europeans or their descendants. Since colonial times, whites had monopolized power. In 1948, the National Party rose to power, and post-WWII recession intensified racism among unemployed, impoverished whites.

The African National Congress ANC was founded in 1912 as the first black political organization. In 1921, the African Communist Party formed an armed branch, Umkhonto we Sizwe Spear of the Nation, while PAC created Poqo Just Us. In 1963, ANC leaders were arrested, with Nelson Mandela sentenced to life in prison and Oliver Tambo leading in exile. Government repression and neighboring regimes allied with the Afrikaners limited guerrilla forces from mobilizing the masses. In 1963, apartheid was formalized. Black South Africans couldn’t vote, needed passes, couldn’t leave designated areas, faced arbitrary detention, and were barred from unions, demonstrations, and shared schools with whites.

In 1976, marginalized communities revolted in Johannesburg suburbs. The SOWETO uprising South West Township revealed that even urban centers, where whites had previously felt secure, were in crisis. In southern Africa, the key conflict was in Namibia, a former German colony militarily occupied by South Africa in WWI and later annexed. In 1966, the UN demanded South Africa grant independence to Namibia, a call reinforced by the OAU and neighboring countries. Namibia’s independence was only achieved on March 21, 1990.

Prime Minister Pieter Botha 1978–1989 introduced minor reforms to apartheid, creating a tricameral parliament with a chamber for each racial group. Blacks were still excluded, limited to local participation, which led to widespread boycotts. The South African economy entered a recession in 1983 due to declining global gold prices, affecting the white middle class. Anti-racist campaigns grew in the U.S. and Western Europe, leading governments and businesses to restrict their activities in South Africa. Pressured by internal crises, Botha resigned in 1989, replaced by Frederik de Klerk, who supported ending apartheid. In September 1989, the country held parliamentary elections under a state of emergency. Despite arrests and threats, three million black South Africans protested, the largest demonstration in the country’s history. Days later, the first legal anti-apartheid rally since 1959 took place.

In February 1990, de Klerk legalized the ANC and other opposition groups. After various announcements and delays, Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27 years. A period of negotiations began, with Mandela resuming his role as the black majority’s leader. Mandela faced challenges from within the ANC and Zulu Inkatha members, who hadn’t opposed apartheid. In May 1990, Mandela announced an agreement between the ANC and the government to end violence and normalize politics. The 1991 CODESA Convention for a Democratic South Africa agreement laid the groundwork for democratic transition and a new constitution. De Klerk organized a referendum in 1992 to validate constitutional changes, facing violent opposition from the right-wing AWB, who attempted to invade Bophuthatswana.

Finally, South Africa held its first multi-ethnic elections in April 1994. The ANC won 63% of the vote, the National Party 20%, and Inkatha 10%. Nelson Mandela was elected President, appointing Thabo Mbeki (ANC) and de Klerk as vice-presidents. The new government’s priorities were clear: to provide decent living standards, housing, education, healthcare, and basic services for the black majority. However, economic inequality and living standards remained unresolved. Rapid reforms risked deterring foreign businesses and investments. Additionally, the ANC struggled to transform from a liberation movement to a governing party. In 1996, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, chaired by Nobel Peace Prize laureate Desmond Tutu, was established to address human rights abuses from 1960 to 1993. The government faced violence in KwaZulu-Natal, calming it with military intervention. Following extensive negotiations, the new constitution took effect in 1996.

In 1998, Mandela announced he would not seek a second term in 1999, stepping down from the ANC leadership, and Thabo Mbeki succeeded him, winning the 1999 elections with a majority in the National Assembly. Internationally, South Africa strengthened ties with Western nations and ANC allies during apartheid. However, the government didn’t always make the best decisions, as shown by its interventions in Angola and the Republic of Congo. Nevertheless, the regime maintained high international prestige, evidenced by historical ANC leader Cyril Ramaphosa’s invitation to participate in Northern Ireland peace talks.

II- THE FOUNDATION

The policy of racial segregation determines a way of life for each individual through a strictly enforced classification. This classification divides the South African population into four distinct groups: whites, blacks, mixed-race coloured, and others Asians, Indians, etc. These groups are subjected to a defined way of life. The laws determine a place of residence for each group, a type of education, and the profession they can pursue. In this way, blacks are excluded from prestigious jobs, as well as from politics and government. Contacts between different groups are prohibited. Citizens who oppose Apartheid are considered communists. Furthermore, the severity of public security laws has turned South Africa into a police state.

In 1948, the National Party came to power with the support of conservative elements within the Boer community. The party’s policy was based primarily on the doctrine of Apartheid, the Boer word meaning separate. Laws were adopted to codify racial segregation. For example, the Population Registration Act 1950 categorized each individual from birth based on their race, thus controlling every aspect of their life. Interracial marriages were prohibited by law.

The majority of blacks then formed organizations such as the African National Congress ANC, the Pan-African Congress, and the South African Students' Association. Unions, such as the miners' union, played an important role in mobilizing organized resistance against Apartheid.

III- THE END OF APARTHEID

Apartheid began to crumble in the 1970s due to economic stagnation and a massive revolt, primarily from workers and the poor. Charged with an anti-capitalist sentiment, the resistance also highlighted forms of self-management. For instance, mass unions, with a socialist agenda, were established in the 1970s-80s, during which there were attempts in black townships to replace state government with democratic civic associations and grassroots communities.

It is in this context that the regime chose to negotiate a new political constitution with the ANC and moderates in the 1990s. These negotiations led to the first non-racial elections in April 1994. For the first time in 300 years, all blacks had the right to vote: freedom of speech and freedom of association.

However, this political progress did not lead to improvements in the material situation of the black working class. Although the ANC campaigned under the slogan A better life for all in 1994, it firmly aligned itself with a neoliberal form of capitalism called G.E.A.R. Growth Employment and Redistribution, a macroeconomic strategy introduced in June 1996. G.E.A.R. calls for the privatization of state assets, liberalization of international trade and capital flows, labor market flexibility, and a minimal role for the state in economic activities.

Here are concrete examples of the ANC’s adoption of neoliberal policies: attempts to privatize state assets e.g., water; land reform programs based on the principle of land redistribution through the market; cuts in the budget of many universities; the Masakhane build together campaign to force the payment of electricity and water in townships; and the closure or downsizing of unprofitable hospitals.

31- THE END OF APARTHEID: HOW CAN IT BE EXPLAINED?

• The influence of reformed Dutch and black Christian churches;
• Pressure from French-speaking business circles on the Afrikaners;
• The role of the black bourgeoisie, which, by emancipating itself, helped dismantle the barriers.

32- INEQUALITY:

In South Africa, 47% of black households live on or below the poverty line. However, the ten wealthiest South African families are worth a total of 18 billion rand. The unemployment rate is 30%, but directors of major companies earn up to 900,000 rand per year. Five large companies control 80% of the financial market in Johannesburg, and 120,000 farmers mostly white own 87% of the land.

Inequality in South Africa does not only follow racial boundaries. While most of the poor are black, not all blacks are poor. In the last twenty years, there has been rapid expansion of a black bourgeoisie and small bourgeoisie. This expansion accelerated after the April 1994 elections. Between 1975 and 1991, the top 20% of black households saw their incomes increase by over 40%. The same period also saw a similar decline for the 40% of the poorest white households. These patterns of racial and class inequality indicate that the black working class the majority of the population remains the primary victim of the legacy of South Africa’s racism and capitalism.

33- CAPITALISM:

The suffering of the black working class has its roots in South Africa’s unique form of capitalist development capitalism-apartheid. Apartheid was not solely the result of fanatic racism, as bourgeois media often suggest.

The forms of social control under Apartheid laid the foundations for the development of capitalism in South Africa. The laws controlling movement  pass laws, the system of migrant labor, the absence of basic political rights, the banning of black unions, and the housing of workers in shacks all these created an extremely cheap and rigorously controlled labor force to serve in the country’s mines, farms, and factories. In many cases, such a system allowed workers to be paid below subsistence levels. The racist ideology justified this oppression.

IV -THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF DEMOCRACY

The political future of the country will depend on the evolution of the national economy, which faces a double challenge: on one hand, social recovery, and on the other, international economic competition.

After a long period of recession since the 1980s, linked to international boycotts and internal political crises, the South African economy has returned to positive growth rates since 1995 around 2% per year, 1.7% in 1999, despite the financial shocks caused by the aftereffects of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Per capita, South Africa’s GNP stands at 13,000 rand about 12,000 French francs, making it a wealthy country by African standards, but concealing many structural weaknesses, especially racial and regional inequalities:

• In the richest provinces, Gauteng and Western Cape, GNP per capita exceeds 21,000 rand; in the poorest provinces, the Northern Province and Eastern Cape, it is less than 2,000 rand. These provincial inequalities also reflect significant disparities between urban and rural areas, with the more urbanized regions faring better.
• The average income per person is over 30,000 rand per year for whites, 12,000 rand for Indians, 8,500 rand for mixed-race people Coloureds, and 4,000 rand for blacks. This racial inequality is reflected in all areas: 60% of adult black workers are illiterate, and fewer than 250,000 blacks graduate each year. Overall, nearly 50% of the population lives below the poverty line.

Another weakness of the South African economy is the unemployment rate, estimated at 35% of the population in 1999. This situation is worsening as most sectors, except services, are losing jobs, especially the main employers: industry, gold mining, and commercial agriculture. Moreover, more than half of South Africans are under 24 years old, which increases the pressure on the job market around 350,000 people enter the labor force each year.

However, South Africa is an economic powerhouse in Africa, producing nearly 50% of the continent’s total industrial output and more than 60% of its electricity. In Southern Africa, its influence is even more significant: it accounts for more than 80% of the vehicle fleet and over 70% of exports, while it only represents 40% of the population.

Moreover, South Africa’s economy is relatively healthy. The foreign trade balance showed a positive surplus of 11.9 billion rand 12.5 billion francs, but imports are mainly made up of manufactured and petroleum products, while exports rely primarily on raw materials, especially gold, which accounts for 25% of the country’s exports. The fall in gold prices in July, which hit a historic low of $254 per ounce, had an impact. However, the decline in the value of the rand has allowed for the continuation of strong export flows, and South African products are gaining new markets due to economic liberalization.

Finally, South Africa’s economy is heavily dominated by a small number of large corporations, organized in financial holdings, which are complex groups of companies working in various sectors. The five largest Anglo American, Rembrandt, Sanlam, SA Mutual, and Liberty Group account for more than 80% of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange's market capitalization the 12th largest in the world.

In this context, the South African government’s economic and social policy aims to maintain the efficiency of the economic system inherited from the apartheid era while ensuring social recovery for historically disadvantaged groups. This objective is evident in all areas: housing, education, health, employment, and infrastructure. Thabo Mbeki has promised real change, more so than his predecessor, who prioritized national reconciliation.

The policy of preferential access to employment for blacks Affirmative Action, governed by the Employment Equity Act since 1998 which aims to ensure fair representation of blacks, women, and the disabled in all employment categories and at all levels, began to be implemented on December 1. Public services have an obligation in this regard, and strong incentives are pushing the private sector to follow suit. This policy, highly contested by white and mixed-race minorities, poses serious training and operational challenges for businesses during the transition period. It is accompanied by Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) programs aimed at developing a black business sector. This has been successful, as today, black owned companies represent just over 10% of the stock market capitalization, compared to 0% in 1993.

However, since 1997, the adoption of a more liberal economic policy has sparked strong tensions within the African National Congress ANC. Successor to the Reconstruction and Development Program RDP, 1994-1997, which was a pillar of the social recovery policy, the policy implemented over the past two years represents a major shift: from the RDP to GEAR Growth, Employment and Redistribution. This new program is very different: it resolutely chooses a market economy and privatization, prioritizes job creation over redistribution. Supported by the IMF, GEAR has been fiercely contested by the trade unions and the Communist Party, which regularly threaten to withdraw from the ruling alliance. The government is therefore at risk of being overtaken from the left, accused of forgetting the struggle and of becoming bourgeois, as seen in the new black economic elite (very close to the government) who drive luxury cars and live in areas previously reserved for whites. Nevertheless, this moderate liberal policy seems to be the only way to maintain the trust of international donors and investors, which is crucial for transforming South Africa's traditional economic foundations. The gold mining sector, once a major strength, is in crisis, and the mining industry is increasingly unable to provide jobs. Formerly protected industries must now adapt to the international context.

V-POLITICAL SYSTEM:

51 - South African Society:
We are in a different Africa, with a history and dynamics distinct from other nations on the continent. Three centuries of contact have shaped a unique and pioneering South African character. South Africa accounts for 40% of the total GNP of Africa. Contrary to its reputation, it is not a powder keg. Violence exists but is localized and limited. South Africa is a dual country, with a large majority of blacks 76% earning less than 1,000 dollars per capita, and minority groups, especially whites 12%, earning 12,000 dollars per capita.

In 1994, it was as if South Africa suddenly jumped from 5 to 40 million inhabitants. We are thus faced with a unique case of a country populated by very different people. The current population is estimated at 43.5 million.

52 - The ANC System - Mbeki:
Nelson Mandela was succeeded by Thabo Mbeki, a man also born into the resistance. South Africa’s current government, led by the president and the ANC party, thus inherits the legacy of a liberation movement that has become liberal. The organization abandoned its former Marxist-Leninist rhetoric to become centralist while maintaining a certain suspicion towards whites. The ANC tends to divide, losing its unity and becoming more bourgeois. The president, trained in exile in London, compensates for right-wing policies with left-wing rhetoric.

According to the new constitution adopted on May 8, 1996, which came into effect on February 4, 1997, the legislative power rests with a bicameral Parliament, consisting of the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces formerly the Senate. The National Assembly is elected by universal suffrage with a proportional representation system, with 350 or 400 members. The National Council of Provinces has 90 members, consisting of six permanent delegates and four special delegates from each province.

The President is elected by the National Assembly and exercises executive power with the support of the members of his council.

The discovery of gold near Johannesburg transformed a small village into a modern city. The area contains some of the world’s largest gold reserves. Artificial lakes offshore from the reefs provide recreational activities such as fishing and birdwatching.

Pretoria, the administrative capital, boasts many parks and gardens. Known as 'Jacaranda City,' it is famous for its trees that cover the streets with flowers in spring. Church Street, which stretches for 26 km, is one of the world’s longest streets.

Cape Town, the legislative capital, is located at the foot of Table Mountain with views of the Atlantic Ocean. Notable sites include the Old Townhouse, Greenmarket Square, 17th-century buildings, the Malay Quarter, and the Castle of Good Hope on Darling Street.

Durban is South Africa’s third-largest city and is a true melting pot of cultures. The Indian community is significant, and there is a constant influx of Africans from northern countries. Due to the subtropical climate, visitors can swim and sunbathe all year round.

VI-ECONOMIC DATA:

With its economic weight producing more than a quarter of the wealth in Africa, the value of its equipment, and the quality of its workforce, South Africa stands as the locomotive of Africa. However, this country, which has recently adopted a democratic regime, remains one of the most unequal in the world. This situation, which leads to social and political violence, is a handicap for an economy that nevertheless has many advantages.

The Situation:

A policy of fiscal orthodoxy has restored major macroeconomic balances, except for the ticking time bomb of black unemployment.

Growth:

2.5% (2002), a slight improvement compared to 2001, but a slowdown compared to the mid-1990s (2.5-3%) due to the effects of the Asian crisis.

Unemployment:

Around 45% of the working population approximately 50% among blacks and 8% among whites estimated in early 2003.

Inflation:

10% (end of 2002). Controlling inflation, which had soared in 1998, allowed for a recent reduction in interest rates.

Currency:

The rand ZAR. The rand floats freely, and several currencies of small neighboring states are tied to it Rand Zone. The rand has lost much of its value since 1994 until its stabilization in 2002. South Africa belongs to the CMA Common Monetary Area, a monetary union that also includes Botswana and Swaziland.

Public Debt:

50% of GDP (in 1999), which represents a sharp increase compared to previous years.

Standard of Living:

Difficult to assess because the average income is twelve times higher among whites than among blacks. If we consider the average theoretical income, South Africa's is one-third of France's, but eight times higher than Nigeria's. 13% of South Africans would live according to European standards, while more than 50% live in conditions akin to those in the Third World.

Some of South Africa's Strengths:

South Africa remains a very rural country 50% of the population and agricultural; it is self-sufficient in terms of food and agricultural products, ranking among the top six net exporters of food in the world. It is the third-largest exporter of fruit globally, fifth for wood pulp, sixth for maize, eighth for wine and wool, and fifteenth for sugar. However, the very unequal land distribution between blacks and whites could destabilize the sector, as seen in Zimbabwe in the spring of 2000.

Some of South Africa’s Challenges:

Land Issue:

Nearly 90% of arable land is owned by a small number of white farmers. The black majority is still waiting for the return of lands confiscated in 1913 (when reserves were created to house the black population), in 1936, and in the 1950s (after the implementation of apartheid).

Landless Farmers of South Africa:

An inequity inherited from apartheid, the control of land by the white population in South Africa has caused resentment among impoverished black families, leading to strong social tensions. Unlike Zimbabwe, which implemented an authoritarian land redistribution from white farmers, Pretoria opted for a "market-assisted" land reform. This political compromise has proven ineffective and favors a minority of already integrated blacks (by Colette Braeckman, Le Monde Diplomatique, September 2003).

Education Deficit:

During apartheid, only a small minority of blacks had access to university. The country has a significant backlog to make up for.

Health of the Population:

Particularly the AIDS epidemic, for which South Africa holds the sad record of the highest number of infected individuals in the world (about 12% of the population is estimated to be infected).

Risks for South Africa:

• The impatience of the black majority.
• The rise in criminal activity, which could lead the country to organize itself into fortified camps.
• Illegal immigration flows from other Southern African countries.

Conclusion:

Ultimately, it will only be through a social revolution that the barriers of racism will be broken. Resistance has already begun with two general strikes in 1997 against labor flexibility, as well as riots against power cuts.

In this situation, a social change should be the goal of the majority black working class, which has nothing to lose and everything to gain from the overthrow of the current social system. However, would a break with the united front of black or white bourgeoisie favor worker autonomy?