TYPOLOGY AND NATURE OF OPERATIONS

INTRODUCTION:

It is not in the nature of the United Nations to provide an exhaustive list of missions that may be assigned to units of contributing nations. The typology presented in this chapter is derived from the experience gained by nations in various peacekeeping actions carried out over the past four decades, as well as from current observable developments. The five characteristic families of peacekeeping actions correspond to the five areas presented in the previous chapter.

Military personnel involved in peacekeeping operations must understand that their resources may sometimes be inadequate and their mission often multifaceted. In fact:

• In some cases, the evolving situation on the ground between the definition of the mandate and the deployment of the Force may render the mission temporarily or permanently unsuitable.
• It is rare for a unit to receive a single mission for a given period (in contrast to a conflict situation). Most often, units receive a general mission along with various secondary, punctual, or permanent missions related to other aspects of peacekeeping.

In a frequently unclear and uncertain framework, everyone can relate to the famous quote by Dag Hammarskjöld (UN Secretary-General from 1953 to 1961):
"Peacekeeping is not a job for soldiers, but only soldiers can do it."

I - OBSERVATION - SURVEILLANCE - SUPERVISION

Observation, surveillance, and supervision are related and complementary concepts. In practice, they are sometimes confused (a mission might be labeled "monitor and supervise..."). Their separate presentation here serves a didactic purpose.

11) Observation

Observation is an inherent task in any peacekeeping action. It can be the sole mission of individuals (observers) or even of entire units. Even if it is not explicitly mentioned in the unit's mission, observation should be considered a permanent task.

The general goal is to ensure that the parties to the conflict respect international and comprehensive agreements and to report any violations of these agreements or incidents that could lead to a deterioration of the situation.

For military units, observation is carried out by:

• Establishing fixed observation posts;
• Setting up permanent checkpoints;
• Conducting patrols (armored, motorized, or on foot);
• Deploying units in front of key points.

Observers perform their mission by alternating between static observation, patrols, and contacts with belligerents and members of the Force. Ground observation can be complemented by aerial reconnaissance if the parties have agreed to it.

To carry out observation effectively, military units work in liaison with observers, military and civilian police elements, and belligerents. Information gathered from civilian and humanitarian organizations may also be useful but must be verified.

12) Surveillance

Surveillance represents a higher level of observation, but without the active involvement in an agreement process that supervision entails. The purpose of surveillance is to ensure that there are no infiltrations of weapons and units into certain areas or that an agreement between the parties is being implemented.

Surveillance can be carried out:

• Over specific areas: border zones, demilitarized zones, maritime approaches, airspace;
• To support regional or local agreements between the conflict parties: ceasefires, armistices, withdrawal of military forces, exchanges of persons or territories.

The methods of execution and coordination are similar to those of observation but with a more focused orientation. In general, surveillance does not require redeployment of forces and is carried out with light elements. Demilitarized zones, unlike the "buffer zones" mentioned below, are normally not occupied by permanent UN forces.

13) Supervision

Supervision involves monitoring the implementation of a process initiated by the parties or by the UN, but with the consent of all involved.

Supervision may involve:

• Establishing buffer zones;
• Withdrawing weapons and disengaging units (creating demilitarized zones);
• Establishing ceasefires or armistices;
• Exchanging prisoners, the wounded, or bodies;
• Exchanging populations or territories;
• Facilitating the movement of civilians in conflict zones;
• Creating and securing refugee camps;
• Monitoring elections or referendums.

The goal is to ensure that each party complies with the various planned stages and to intervene if any violation occurs.

Specific modalities may vary greatly depending on the type of process and the local context, but key points include:

• Negotiation of the agreement: Whether they initiate the negotiation or are invited by the parties, UN representatives (military leaders, and possibly also directors of civil affairs, or representatives of the UNHCR) must fully engage in the negotiation of the agreement they will later supervise. They sign as witnesses to the agreement between the parties.
• Preparation for implementation by the United Nations: Supervision is a real operation and is planned and ordered by the competent UN command.
• Execution: The political importance of the operation's success requires close monitoring of its progress, permanent communication with the parties, and rapid responses if necessary, including the intervention of reserve elements.

Disarmament and demobilization operations are a particularly important and complex case, requiring the establishment of buffer zones and control of adjacent areas, along with procedures to ensure balanced operations between the parties.

II - PREVENTION OF HOSTILITIES: PREVENTIVE DEPLOYMENTS
INTERPOSITION

Observation, surveillance, and supervision actions naturally contribute to the prevention of hostilities. The same applies to many other civil or military activities; for example, "military information" conducted by the Force:

• The better informed we are, the more effective preventive measures can be taken; moreover, every effort must always be made to avoid escalation, which could force the Force to intervene.
• This is how the open nature of "military information" (preferred over the term "intelligence") should be understood within a United Nations peacekeeping force: it follows the principle of transparency and can, in certain cases, help reduce tension.

21) Preventive Deployments

The violation of an agreement or the imminence of an attack by one of the parties may lead the command, at the local or theater level, to deploy forces. The general objective is to stop the violation or deter the attack. For a preventive deployment to be credible, it must:

• Involve a sufficient volume of forces,
• Ensure the protection of personnel engaged (armored vehicles, intervention reserves, possibly ground and air support) without this being interpreted as a provocation by one of the parties,
• Include static elements and numerous mobile elements to gather information and demonstrate U.N. presence ("show the flag"),
• Be clearly perceived by the parties as a United Nations action (preferably with multinational elements engaged and clearly marked positions),
• Be widely publicized: to the various parties, as well as to public opinion through the media.

22) Interposition

Interposition between opposing armies or factions occurs when the outbreak or resumption of hostilities is imminent or has already begun. Interposition is carried out at the request or with the agreement of the parties. In some cases, even if formal agreement from one of the parties is not yet obtained, preparatory movements may begin. However, it is generally not considered in peacekeeping actions to impose an interposition by force (such an operation, feasible in a peace enforcement framework, requires capabilities that a peacekeeping force typically does not have). Depending on the situation, interposition may allow for sufficient time for detailed planning or may be conducted as an emergency intervention. In this second case, the U.N. must exert its full weight to ensure that the interposition force is not deployed in untenable conditions.

The phase preceding the interposition involves establishing at least the following agreements:

• A ceasefire agreement,
• Determination of precise demarcation lines,
• Withdrawal of opposing forces behind their respective demarcation lines,
• The terms of deployment, action, and freedom of movement of the interposition force.

The tasks to be carried out by the interposition force include those related to the supervision of the agreement (ceasefire, withdrawal) and its deployments, addressed in previous paragraphs.
In preventive deployments and interpositions, military forces are accompanied by observers and police elements (military and civilian); the presence of civil affairs members and humanitarian organization representatives may also be necessary.

23) Buffer Zones - Protected Zones - Demilitarized Zones

The prolonged pursuit of a preventive deployment or an interposition may result in the creation of:

• Buffer zones,
• Protected zones (safe areas/protected zones),
• Demilitarized zones.

The creation of a protected zone can be decided by the United Nations, but its actual implementation must be negotiated with the parties. Negotiation is also essential for the creation of buffer or demilitarized zones. The agreements, which may subsequently be supervised by the Force, cover all previously mentioned points, supplemented by economic and humanitarian exchanges and measures.

III - MILITARY ASSISTANCE

Military assistance encompasses public service missions, training-protection missions, and law enforcement missions.

31) Public Service

The survival of populations and the maintenance of a minimum level of economic activity may lead military units to carry out a number of public service tasks. These are always executed under the order of operational command, in coordination, when necessary, with Civil Affairs and local authorities.
These missions often have a humanitarian objective (directly or indirectly) but also contribute to creating the climate of trust necessary for peacekeeping actions and the credibility of the Force.
Public service tasks may include:

• Repair of infrastructure (roads, bridges, public buildings, etc.),
• Drilling wells or treating water,
• Providing logistical support (transporting people or goods),
• Medical evacuations,
• Responding to natural disasters or consequences of hostilities.
  In some cases, the tense environment may require the establishment of a protection element.

32) Training – Protection

Military units may need to provide technical military assistance to local forces, such as rebuilding police and security forces, training deminers, etc. Additionally, the units' assistance may be required for the smooth execution of a technical or political process:

• Protection of personnel repairing infrastructure,
• Population transfers,
• Organization of elections or referendums,
• Installation of a government.

This framework generally translates into a protection mission, but in the event of incidents, it can evolve into a prevention mission (stopping an attack by a faction hostile to the process) or maintaining public order.

Finally, military units may need to participate in searches (of neighborhoods or homes), usually conducted by civilian police in conjunction with the local police. This mission involves the following tasks for the units:

• Securing a perimeter,
• Close protection of personnel conducting the search.

33) Maintenance of Public Order – Restoration of Public Order

The involvement of military units in public order operations remains exceptional. However, certain circumstances (violent protests against the presence of UN troops, riots due to famine, etc.) may necessitate it.

In addition to technical difficulties such as:

• Use of units not specialized in public order,
• Internal coordination within the multinational force,
• Possible coordination with local police (supporting or jointly intervening with them), there are legal and political issues:
• Determining which authority is responsible for maintaining order (retained by the host nation or transferred to a UN authority),
• The legal framework of reference,
• The risk of international repercussions in the event of misconduct, overreach, or failure.

Despite these difficulties, military leaders and units must be prepared for the possibility of conducting public order maintenance or restoration operations; the necessary equipment must be put in place beforehand.

IV – Humanitarian Assistance

The survival of populations in the deployment zone of the Force may require the distribution of food aid and essential materials, medical assistance, and direct protection. Military units may be more or less involved in these tasks depending on the extent of humanitarian organizations' presence, the situation, and their own capabilities. This military participation in humanitarian actions may occur alongside public service actions and must follow the same decision-making rules.

41) Protection and Support

When most of the humanitarian aid is handled by humanitarian organizations, military units may still be requested to:

• Escort humanitarian aid convoys and medical teams,
• Escort convoys of displaced persons,
• Protect humanitarian aid depots,
• Protect refugee camps,
• Provide information to humanitarian organizations on the situation.

In some cases, the command may also decide to support humanitarian actions by providing transportation, technical support, or even personnel (drivers, etc.).

42) Taking Charge of Humanitarian Aid

In the absence of humanitarian organizations or in highly tense operational situations (the two factors may be linked), military units may be tasked with fully handling the distribution of humanitarian aid, which involves additional tasks:

• Receiving and transporting aid,
• Organizing the distribution (creating main and secondary depots),
• Distributing the aid.

In parallel with food aid distribution, units may also need to organize medical aid:

• Supporting or setting up local dispensaries,
• Conducting medical and surgical interventions,
• Organizing medical evacuations.

43) Urgent Military Interventions

The survival of populations may also require urgent military intervention to stop or prevent abuses that may be committed by units or militias of the opposing faction. This mission may resemble:

• Preventive deployment,
• Interdiction operations with potential use of weapons (within the rules of engagement).

Two key considerations regarding all humanitarian assistance missions:

• Military Commanders’ Initiative: Dramatic situations may lead commanders to consider taking the initiative in certain humanitarian actions. If people's physical survival is at risk, intervention is considered a duty. In other cases, the military commander must ensure that the proposed action does not pose indirect risks to the security of their unit; moreover, the commander must recognize that a humanitarian action occurs within a broader context, some aspects of which may be beyond their control, and may have implications outside their deployment zone. Therefore, except in emergencies, the opinion or approval of higher command must be sought. Higher command will consult Civil Affairs before granting approval.

• Coordination: All humanitarian actions, regardless of their scale, must not be an internal affair of the unit; they should be carried out in coordination with one or more of the following parties: local authorities, Civil Affairs of the Force, humanitarian organizations (UNHCR, ICRC, governmental organizations, NGOs); this coordination may lead to the appointment of a civil and humanitarian affairs officer in the unit's staff, even if this position is not planned. It is possible that in the future, the UN may require the presence of a G5 officer (civil-military affairs) in battalion staffs.

V – Control of Movements

In peacekeeping operations, controlling movements is of utmost importance.

51) Freedom of Movement for the Force

The freedom of movement of military units and civil organizations of the Force is inherent to the consent of the parties to its deployment. However, this initial acceptance may, over time, face restrictions. Additionally, there may be voluntary or involuntary contradictions between the acceptance by political leaders and the actions of military leaders at various levels. Guaranteeing the Force's freedom of movement may require the execution of classic missions such as:

• Escorting,
• Road control,
• Route clearance (potentially involving engineering units).

The attitude toward the parties is specified by:

• Standard Operating Procedures (S.O.P.s) or directives from the Force Commander (F.C.P.D.) for passing through checkpoints held by factions,
• Rules of Engagement (R.O.E.) in the event of faction actions against Force units and convoys.

It is important to understand the differences in control that apply to the statuses of different vehicles potentially mixed in a single convoy (NGO-UNHCR-Force).

52) Restriction of Movements for Conflict Parties

Movement restrictions for parties (military and paramilitary forces, police, population) are defined by the mandate and subsequent agreements (general or local). Monitoring the movements of parties is normally conducted as part of observation-surveillance-supervision actions. Non-compliance with agreements by the parties may lead to:

• Public order actions in the case of population movements,
• Prevention of hostilities when it concerns the movement of military units, which may evolve into interdiction actions involving the use of weapons.

53) Participation in the Implementation of Sanctions

While remaining within the framework of peacekeeping, the United Nations may decide to impose sanctions on one of the parties. Land forces may be involved in implementing an embargo or other coercive measures, resulting in missions such as:

• Increased movement control (banning the transit of goods subject to the embargo),
• Control of key points or zones,
• Interdiction.

Air forces may participate in these different missions (surveillance, implementing "no-fly zones"). The terms of cooperation and mutual support are specific to each Force.

The examination of the types of missions outlined in this chapter reveals that the concept of exchange is fundamental to a proper understanding of peacekeeping: 

THE EXCHANGES IN PEACEKEEPING REFERENCE AUTHORITY: THE MANDATE THAT APPLIES TO ALL

Note: In the use of force, "control" is exercised by the political authority (Security Council), and "command" is exercised by the military hierarchy (of the Force).