GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS

Le monde des blogs

9 Oct, 2024

I. DEFINITION

Definitions of "peacekeeping," though not always comprehensively. The international consensus on the nature of different peacekeeping actions allows us to propose the following definition:

Action aimed at preventing, limiting, or ending hostilities between states or between factions (x) within a state, through the intervention of multinational elements, including military forces, police elements, and civil organizations, under the aegis of an international organization.
A peacekeeping action takes place at the request or with the consent of the concerned parties. The use of force to achieve set objectives may be decided by the organization managing the political direction of the action.

(x): "Faction" refers to the military or paramilitary elements of a "party," a larger human group that also includes political entities and populations.

The second paragraph of this definition is extremely important as it clearly delineates the boundary between peacekeeping and peace enforcement; refusal by one of the parties to the conflict automatically places the international community before the choice of non-intervention or peace restoration.

The right to use arms in self-defense is recognized under all circumstances.
The right to use force may be recognized when necessary if the mission's execution is compromised by the actions of one of the parties.
The use of weapons may also be decided by the international community as a last resort.

Two corollaries to this definition are:

The legitimacy of the peacekeeping action organized by the international community with the consent of the conflicting parties. To ensure this legitimacy is not challenged, members of the Force must adhere to the constitutive rules of the legal framework of their action, even if provocations attempt to deviate them.
Mutual respect between the Force members and the various belligerents. If this principle is established at the time of deployment, its continued preservation also requires the Force members to respect rules of behavior, with the belligerents recognizing the Force's credibility.

II. AREAS OF ACTION

The five pillars of a pragmatic approach to peacekeeping are:

Disarmament in the Force's deployment area: The removal of armaments or placing them under UN control may be gradual and selective. This operation coincides with the withdrawal or demobilization of combatants.
Prevention of hostilities: The primary goal of peacekeeping, preventing hostilities, is achieved through passive actions like monitoring and information, as well as active deployment actions, including temporary reinforcements.
Military assistance to international civil organizations: This concerns the protection and/or participation in public service activities. In some cases, this assistance can involve participation in operations to maintain or restore public order.
Humanitarian aid to populations: Even though its intensity and forms can vary greatly, the humanitarian aspect is part of every peacekeeping action. Humanitarian aid may require convoy and depot protection and always demands significant logistical support.
Freedom of movement for all participants in the peacekeeping operation: military units, observers, and civil organizations. This freedom of movement is essential for the operation's success and may require military actions to ensure.

Acceptance by the belligerents of the above points is integral to their consent to the deployment of the peacekeeping Force.

III. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

Unlike the previous points that involve all parties, the following five fundamental principles concern mainly the peacekeeping Force:

Impartiality: The impartiality of the Force members toward all factions and population groups is essential for the success of the operation and the safety of the Force.
Transparency: The Force's mission, intentions, and methods must be communicated to the various stakeholders in the peace process and periodically reiterated. Linked to impartiality, the transparency of the Force’s actions must be supported by a proactive communication policy.
Intensive use of negotiation: In any violent opposition, a return to peace is mainly achieved through resuming dialogue between the conflict parties. Force members, at varying levels, must be able to convince belligerents to negotiate and be good negotiators themselves.
Controlled use of force: The escalation of different levels of force use (without weapons, with individual or collective weapons, limited to defense, or allowed in certain precise cases) is governed by Rules of Engagement (ROE). The principle of controlled force usage aims at ensuring mission success and Force safety while reducing violence levels.
Credibility: Credibility is often the natural outcome of the four previous principles. However, even if these are implemented effectively, the Force's credibility is not always guaranteed in a generally complex environment. Leaders at all levels must strive to demonstrate and maintain the Force's credibility through various activities.

IV. LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF MILITARY FORCE ACTIONS

The legal framework is comprised of international conventions and specific texts developed for each peacekeeping action.

International conventions: These include the international humanitarian law and the 1946 UN Convention on Privileges and Immunities, which outlines the privileges and immunities of UN personnel, including peacekeeping Force members.
Texts governing peacekeeping operations: These include the mandate of the Force and the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA), which defines the relationship between the UN and the host nation, as well as agreements with contributing nations (PSA), judicial powers, and disciplinary measures.

V- PARTNERS OF MILITARY UNITS IN PEACEKEEPING ACTIONS

51) Organizations Integrated into the Force

In addition to military units, a peacekeeping force may include observers and military and civilian police elements.

511- Military Observers (United Nations Military Observers: U.N.M.O.s or MIL.OBS)

The general role of observers is to monitor and verify the implementation of agreements signed by the parties (ceasefire, withdrawal, etc.). Observers operate under a particular hierarchy that may be integrated into the Force or separate from it, with its own staff. They work in liaison with units and mid-level headquarters (e.g., sector level) but are theoretically not subordinate to them. This principle is currently being reconsidered in some Forces where observers are under the operational control (OP.CON) of the sector command where they are deployed.

An observer team generally consists of 2 to 4 officers (captains or majors, occasionally lieutenant colonels) of different nationalities, along with necessary interpreters. These personnel are typically unarmed. The impartiality of observers is crucial, and their most common missions include:

Observation, which covers all military, political, and humanitarian aspects within their area of deployment,
Supervision and monitoring,
Investigations following protests,
Negotiations, mediation, liaison,
Humanitarian assistance missions.

512- Military Police (United Nations Military Police: U.N.M.P. or MIL POL)

The general role of military police units and detachments is to ensure that the Force’s personnel comply with laws and regulations, in coordination with the United Nations and local police units. Depending on the composition and mission of the Force, military police may also handle road traffic control for United Nations vehicles.

Military police, under the orders of the "Force Provost Marshall" within the Force’s military staff, have permanent elements at various command levels and within units. Morocco generally provides Gendarmerie personnel to multinational military police elements and systematically within its own units.

Each battalion may include one or more brigades. These brigades receive directives from the provost detachment attached to the contingent commander for purely national matters and from the military police detachment of the operational command that oversees the battalion for matters related to the United Nations.

Moroccan personnel may interact with two categories of military police:

The provosts, responsible for Moroccan units within their deployment zones,
The UNMP (multinational), responsible for the entire action zone of the Force.

The division of responsibilities is not always clear-cut. The provost brigades therefore strive to intervene whenever Moroccan personnel are involved and carry out national procedures, even if a U.N. procedure is in place.

General missions of the military police include:

Investigations into incidents involving Force personnel (military and civilian), especially in cases of violations of the rules agreed upon with the host nation (as outlined in the Status of Forces Agreement, or SOFA),
Traffic control and investigations following accidents,
Control of refugee flows,
Border surveillance and confiscation of illegally introduced weapons,
General information gathering for the benefit of military command.

The military police work in liaison with the United Nations civilian police, local police, and various command levels.

513- Civilian Police (United Nations Civilian Police: U.N.CIV.POL)

The deployment of civilian police observers within a Force is not systematic and depends on the U.N.’s assessment of the ability of local police to carry out certain missions within the peacekeeping framework.

The multinational civilian police are under the orders of the "CIV.POL Commissioner," who reports to the Director of Civil Affairs. They are represented at various levels of Force command (Civil Affairs Branch). The distribution of civilian police on the ground is based on needs (population size, local police capabilities) rather than the deployment of military forces.

The general mission of U.N. civilian police is not to replace local police in administrative policing tasks concerning host nation citizens (U.N.CIV.POL has no powers of arrest, search, or interrogation), but to address certain civilian aspects related to peacekeeping:

Supervision of local police (respect for human rights, implementation of agreements),
Investigations into disappearances of persons (including population censuses), investigations into crimes committed by factions (war crimes or crimes against humanity),
Negotiation (hostage releases), supervision (exchanges),
Observation in the event of riots and law enforcement operations,
Observation, escort, and assistance in United Nations economic and humanitarian activities,
Judicial police assistance in special operations (house searches).

These specific missions are supplemented by ongoing patrol and observation activities, as well as liaison with local police, among local police forces, and with the Force's military police.

52) External Organizations to the Force

521- The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (U.N.H.C.R.)

The U.N.H.C.R.'s general mission is to protect refugees and vulnerable populations while seeking durable solutions. Its main activities include:

Organizing emergency relief,
Assisting with voluntary repatriation or immigration to other countries,
Providing economic and social support (agricultural programs, vocational training, education).

The U.N.H.C.R. coordinates with other U.N. agencies (UNICEF, UNESCO, World Food Program, etc.), intergovernmental organizations (EU, European Union, etc.), governmental, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

In many peacekeeping operations, the U.N.H.C.R. is increasingly recognized as the coordinator for most humanitarian organizations.

In practice, the U.N.H.C.R. sets up several field offices, whose size varies, and operates in coordination with the Civil Affairs branch of the Force, military headquarters’ Civil Affairs offices (G5), and sometimes directly with units.

522- The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)

The ICRC is a private, independent, and neutral Swiss institution, but recognized by states and international organizations. It seeks to ensure, based on the Geneva Conventions or its own initiative, protection and assistance for victims of international and civil wars, internal unrest, and tensions.

The ICRC’s presence on the ground varies. When humanitarian organizations are numerous, and if the U.N.H.C.R. coordinates the overall aid effort, the ICRC focuses on ensuring compliance with international humanitarian law by the parties involved in the conflict, especially concerning the treatment of prisoners, the wounded, and civilians.

It is important not to confuse ICRC representatives with members of national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. Although they are all part of the International Red Cross Movement, national societies fall under their respective states.

523- Non-Governmental Organizations (N.G.O.s)

N.G.O.s are private associations, and their size and financial resources vary greatly. Some are international, while others are national or even regional.

The private nature of N.G.O.s raises questions about their impartiality. Some N.G.O.s may openly or covertly align with political, ideological, or religious positions. Therefore, the Force's command (Civil Affairs branch), possibly in liaison with the U.N.H.C.R., must ensure that the actions of N.G.O.s align with the mission’s spirit.

This issue may also arise at the unit level if an N.G.O. operates in a unit's deployment zone. It is up to the military commander to ensure the N.G.O.’s independence through U.N. channels (operational command) or national channels (CCFR) for a French N.G.O.

The nature of collaboration between N.G.O.s and military units is determined by various levels of operational command. Military units must ensure they do not substitute N.G.O.s when the latter can perform their specific tasks, but they must provide assistance as directed by operational command and intervene if the safety of N.G.O. personnel is threatened.